Why do mosquitoes not get malaria?

 

Why do mosquitoes not get malaria?

Shah Academy

the answer. Malaria is not caused by mosquitoes for two reasons.

1. Mosquitoes do not have red blood cells, and the malaria virus mainly attacks red blood cells.

2- The germs of malaria enter the mosquito in this condition, in which case it does not cause malaria, whereas from the mosquito, this germ enters the human being in the state of giving his disease.

The bacterium that causes malaria is "plasmodium", which is transmitted from mosquitoes to humans.

If we look at the life cycle of this germ, its life cycle is divided into two stages, one stage in which it performs sexual reproduction and the other stage in which it performs asexual reproduction, its first stage is in human. And in the second mosquito. The condition of the germs that cause malaria is "sporozoites". Which is born in a mosquito, but is transmitted to humans by the bite of a mosquito, and then these sporozoites enter the human liver, and from there they evolve into a new state, called merozoites. These merozoites then enter the human red blood cells, increase their numbers there and at the same time transform into another state, called gametocytes, and then when another mosquito sucks human blood, these gametocytes enter the mosquito. Are transferred, where these gametocytes turn into sporozoites again.

So the condition in which the malaria germ (plasmodium) is transmitted from human to mosquito is gametocytes, but these gametocytes do not spread the disease. Which causes malaria. But sporozoites mainly attack human red cells, break down red cells and the substances released from these broken cells do more damage to the body.

Mosquitoes do not have red blood cells, they do not have blood, they have hemolymph instead of blood. Therefore, sporozoites live in the salivary glands of mosquitoes, and when a mosquito bites a human, it adds its own saliva to its blood, which prevents blood from clotting and the mosquito drinks blood. Are also included in human blood ...

The female anopheles mosquito usually transmits the malaria virus.

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ہیلیم کیا ہے

ہیلیم

تعارف#

ہیلیم کاٸنات میں سب سے زیادہ مقدار میں پایا

 جانے والا دوسرا سب سے بڑا ایلیمنٹ ہے جو کہ ہاٸیڈروجن کو چھوڑ کر باقی تمام ایلیمنٹس سے ہلکا ایلیمنٹ ہے۔اسکا اٹامک نمبر دو جبکہ اٹامک ماس چار ہے اور اسے He سے ظاہر کیا جاتا ہے۔اگرچہ یہ بہت زیادہ مقدار میں پایا جاتا ہے لیکن بہت کم ڈینسٹی کی وجہ سے یہ زمین کے ایٹموسفیر میں بہت ہی کم مقدار میں پایا جاتا ہے۔یہ کتنا کم پایا جاتا ہے اسکا اندازہ اس سے لگایا جاسکتا ہے کہ ہماری ہوا کا صرف %0.00054  ہیلیم پر مشتمل ہوتا ہے،یہی وجہ ہے کہ جب غبارے میں ہیلیم گیس بھری جاتی ہے تو غبارہ اوپر کی برف اڑان بھرتا ہے اور ایک مخصوص بلندی پر جاکر پھٹ جاتا ہے۔جب غبارہ  تقریبا دس کلومٹر کی بلندی پر پہنچتا ہے تو چونکہ زمین کا ایٹموسفیر پریشر کم ہوتا ہے اور اندر کا پریشر زیادہ ہوجاتا ہے جسکی وجہ سے غبارہ پھٹ جاتا ہے۔اگر اسکی خصوصیات کی بات کی جاۓ تو یہ ایک بے رنگ،بے بو اور بے ذاٸقہ اور غیر زیریلی گیس ہوتی ہے۔اسکا بواٸلنگ پواٸنٹ (268.9C-)باقی تمام ایلیمنٹس کی نسبت کم ہوتا ہے یہی وجہ ہے کہ اسکو کولنگ ایجنٹ کے طور پر استعمال کیا جاتا ہے یعنی یہ بہت کم ٹمریچر پر بھی گیس حالت میں رہ سکتی ہے.ہمارے سورج میں %25 ہیلیم گیس پاٸ جاتی ہے جو کہ ہاٸیڈروجن کے بعد سب سے زیادہ مقدار میں پاٸ جانے والی گیس ہے۔

دریافت#

ہیلیم کی دریافت کے متعلق جاننے سے پہلے تھوڑا بہت سپکیٹروسکوپ کے بارے میں جان لیتے ہیں۔سپکیٹروسکوپ دراصل ایک ایسا آلہ ہے جس کے اندر ایک پرزم لگا ہوتا ہے اور جب ایک گرم جسم جب گلو کرتا ہے یعنی چمکتا ہے تو اسکی روشنی کو اس آلہ کی مدد مطالعہ کیا جاتا ہے۔اس آلہ کو کیمسٹری میں بڑی اہمیت اہمیت حاصل ہے  کیونکہ جب ایلیمنٹ کی بظاہر شناخت کرنا مشکل ہوتی ہے تو اسکی مدد سے اسکی شناخت کی جاتی ہے۔مثال کے طور پر جب سوڈیم گلو کرتا ہے تو اس میں سے نکلنے والی روشنی پیلے رنگ کی ہوتی ہے۔لیکن اگر اس روشنی کو سپیکٹروسکوپ کی مدد سے دیکھا جاۓ تو یہ رنگ چھوٹی چھوٹی پیلے رنگ کی لاٸنز جسے ایلمنٹ کی سپیکٹرل لاٸنز کہتے ہیں،کی صورت میں نظر آتا ہے۔اسی آلہ کی مدد سے دو ایلیمنٹس کے درمیان فرق کی شناخت کی جاتی ہے کیونکہ ہر ایلیمنٹس کا اپنا مخصوص سپیکٹرم ہوتا ہے یعنی سپیٹروسکوپ پر ہر ایلیمنٹ کی اپنی مخصوص لاٸنز بنتی ہے اور اسی کو تو اس ایلیمنٹ کا سپیکٹرم کہتے ہیں۔

ہیلیم وہ واحد ایلیمنٹ ہے جسکی دریافت سورج پر ہوٸ۔ہوتا کچھ یوں ہے کہ 1868ءمیں ایک فرانسیسی ماہر فلکیات پیٸر جانسن(Pierre Janssen) نے انڈیا کا سفر کیا تاکہ سورج گرہن کا نظارہ کیا جاسکے کیونکہ ان دنوں انڈیا میں مکمل طور پر سورج گرہن تھا۔سورج گرہن ماہر فلکیات کے لیے سورج کے سرفیس کا مطالعہ کرنے کا سنہرا موقع فراہم کرتا ہے اور شاید یہی وجہ تھی کہ جانسن کو یہ چیز انڈیا لے آٸ۔اس نے جب سپکیٹروسکوپ کی مدد سے سورج کی روشنی کا مطالعہ کیا تو وہ یہ دیکھ کر بڑا حیران ہوا کہ سپکیٹروسکوپ میں بننے والی لاٸنز یعنی سپیکٹرل لاٸنز اس وقت کسی دوسرے معلوم شدہ ایلیمنٹ کی سپکیٹرل لاٸنز کے ساتھ مشابہت نہیں کررہی تھیں۔اس کے علاوہ ایک اور ساٸنسدان نارمن لوکیٸر نے بھی سورج گرہن کے وقت ان لاٸنز کو دیکھا۔ان تمام شواہد سے یہ واضع ہوگیا کہ سورج پر ایک ایسا ایلیمنٹ موجود ہے جو زمین پر موجود نہیں ہے۔اس ایلیمنٹ کو لوکیٸر نے ہیلیم کا نام دیا۔چونکہ اسکی دریافت سورج کے سرفیس میں ہوٸ اس لیے اس ایلیمنٹ کو ہیلیم کا نام دیا گیا جس کا مطلب ہے سورج کا دیوتا جو کہ یونانی لفظhelios سے لیا گیا ہے۔1895ء میں ایک فزسٹ سر ویلیم ریمزے نے یہ معلوم کیا کہ ہیلیم گیس یورینیم کے منرلز میں بھی پاٸ جاتی ہے اور یہ ہیلم کی زمین پر پاۓ جانے کی پہلی کھوج تھی کیونکہ اس سے پہلے پیٸر جانسن کا یہی خیال تھا کہ یہ گیس صرف سورج کے سرفس میں ہی پاٸ جاتی ہے لیکن جیسے جیسے اس پر تحقیق ہوتی گٸ زمین پر اسکے پاۓ جانے کے شواہد ملتے گۓ۔اس پر جب مزید تحقیق ہوٸ تو معلوم ہوا کہ یہ ریڈیوایکٹو ایلیمنٹس کے نہ صرف ٹوٹنے سے حاصل ہوتی ہے بلکہ یہ زیرزمین قدرتی گیسز کے اورز میں بھی پاٸ جاتی ہے جسے ڈسٹیلیشن کے ذریعے دوسری گیسز سے علیحد کیا جاتا ہے۔ڈسٹیلشن دراصل ایسا عمل ہے جس میں زیر زمین کنواں کھود کر قدرتی گیسز کو ٹھنڈا کر کے ماٸع حالت میں تبدیل کیا جاتا ہے اور اسکے بعد ان تمام گیسز کو ایواپوریٹ کیا جاتا ہے اور آخر پر جو گیس بچ جاتی ہے وہ ہیلم ہوتی ہے۔آج دنیا میں جتنی مقدار میں ہیلیم گیس حاصل کی جاچکی ہے اسکا زیادہ تر حصہ اسی طریقہ کے ذریعےحاصل کیا جاتا ہے۔امریکہ وہ واحد ریاست ہے جس کے پاس سب س زیادہ مقدار میں ہیلیم موجود ہے تقریبا دنیا کی%80 ہیلیم امریکہ کے پاس موجود ہے جبکہ دوسرے نمبر پر Qatar ہے جو دنیا کا ہیلیم کی مقدار رکھنے والا دوسرا بڑا ملک ہے۔لیکن دکھ کی بات یہ ہے کہ ہیلیم گیس کو مصنوعی طریقہ سے پیدا نہیں کیا جاسکتا،اسکی وجہ یہ ہے کہ یہ بہت زیادہ سٹیبل گیس ہے یعنی پیریاڈک ٹیبل کے دوسرے ایلیمنٹس کے ساتھ کیماٸ تعامل نہیں کرتی۔اس لیے آپ کو ایسے کمپاٶنڈز دیکھنے کو نہیں ملیں گے جو ہیلیم گیس پر مشتمل ہوں۔کیونکہ یہ ایک ڈاٸ اٹامک گیس ہے  یعنی یہ اپنے ویلنس شیل(S شیل) میں دو الیکٹرانز رکھنے کی وجہ سے اپنا ڈوپلیٹ رول مکمل کرلیتی ہے۔لیکن خوشی کی بات یہ ہے کہ اسکی نان ری ایکٹیویٹی کی وجہ سے  بہت سی جگہ پر اسکا استعمال  بہت مفید ہے۔

قدرت میں بہتات#

ہیلیم کائنات اور نظام شمسی میں ہائیڈروجن کے بعد دوسرا سب سے زیادہ وافر عنصر ہے۔  کائنات میں موجود تمام ایٹموں میں سے تقریباً 11.3 فیصد ہیلیم ایٹم ہیں۔  اس کے مقابلے میں، کائنات کے تمام ایٹموں میں سے تقریباً 88.6 فیصد ہائیڈروجن ہیں۔  اس طرح، تمام ایٹموں میں سے کم از کم 99.9 فیصد ہائیڈروجن یا ہیلیم ایٹم ہیں۔

 اس کے برعکس، ہیلیم زمین پر بہت کم مقدار میں پاٸ جاتی ہے۔  یہ نائٹروجن، آکسیجن، آرگن، کاربن ڈائی آکسائیڈ، اور نییون کے بعد فضا میں چھٹے سب سے زیادہ وافر گیس ہے۔  یہ ہوا کا تقریباً 0.000524 فیصد بناتا ہے۔

 زمین کی پرت میں ہیلیم کی مقدار کا اندازہ لگانا شاید ناممکن ہے۔  یورینیم اور دیگر تابکار عناصر کے ٹوٹنے سے یہ گیس پیدا ہوتی ہے۔ 

استعمالات#

اسکو ویلڈنگ سسٹم میں استعمال کیا جاتا ہے کیونکہ یہ نان ری ایکٹو ہوتی ہے یعنی یہ کسی بھی دوسرے ایلیمنٹ ساتھ کیمیاٸ تعامل نہیں کرسکتی۔ویلڈنگ ایک ایسا عمل ہوتا ہے جس میں دو میٹلز کو بہت زیادہ ٹمپریچر پر آپس میں جوڑا جاتا ہے۔اگر یہ عمل کھلی فضا یعنی آکسیجن کی موجودگی میں کیا جاۓ تو چونکہ آکسیجن ری ایکٹو گیس ہوتی ہے اور بہت زیادہ ٹمریچر پر میٹلز کے ساتھ کیماٸ تعامل کرکے میٹل آکساٸیڈ بنادیتی ہے جس کی وجہ یہ میٹلز کی آپس میں جڑنے کی مضبوطی میٹل آکساٸیڈ کی وجہ کم ہوجاتی ہے۔اگر یہ عمل ہیلیم کی موجودگی اور آکسیجن کی غیر موجودگی میں کیا جاۓ تو چونکہ ہیلیم نان ای ایکٹو گیس ہوتی ہے لہذا میٹلز آپس میں مضبوطی سے جڑیں گی۔اسکی نان ری ایکٹنس کا فاٸدہ اٹھاتے ہوۓ اسکو Leakage detection system میں استعمال کیا جاتا ہے۔اگر پاٸپ کہیں سے لیک ہوجاۓ تو اسکی مدد سے لکیج کا پتا لگایا جاسکتا ہے۔کیونہ یہ کیس بھی دوسری گیس کےساتھ ری ایکٹ نہیں کرسکتی،سو جب اسے پاٸپ کے ایک سرے سے گزارا جاتا ہے اور اس پاٸپ کے باہر ایک آلہ ہوتا ہے جسکی مدد سے یہ معلوم کیا جاتا ہے کہ ہیلیم پاٸپ سے کس جگہ سے نکل رہی ہے،اگر ہیلم کہیں سے زیادہ مقدار میں نکل رہی ہوگی تو آلہ پر سکے مطابق ریڈنگ ہوگی۔اسکے علاوہ اس کو سپر کنڈکٹو میٹیریلز حاصل کرنے کے لیے استعمال کیا جاتا ہے۔عام طور پر کوٸ بھی ایسا کرنٹ کیرینگ میٹیریل نہیں ہے جس کی کا ٹمریچر وقت کے ساتھ نہ بڑھتا ہے اور جیسے ہی ٹمپریچر بڑھتا ہے تو ہیٹ کی شکل میں انرجی کا لاس ہوتا ہے۔لیکن اگر یہ کام بہت ہی کم ٹمپریچر پر سرانجام دیا جاۓ تو کنڈکٹرز میں سے گزرنے والا کرنٹ کے خلاف عمل کرنے والی مزاحمتی فورس(رزسٹنس) اس قدر کم ہوگی کہ اس کو نظر انداز کیا جاسکتا ہے۔ہیلیم گیس کو میڈیل کے شعبہ میںMRI اسکینرز میں کولنگ ایجنٹ کے طور پر استعمال کیا جاتا ہے۔اسکے علاوہ ہیلیم کو غبارے بھرنے کے لیے استعمال کیا جاتا ہے،%80 ہیلیم اور %20 آکسیجن کا مرکب گہرے غوطہ خوروں کے لیے مصنوعی ماحول کے طور پر استعمال ہوتا۔جنگ عظیم دوم میں امریکہ نے اسکو دفاٸ مقاصد کے لیے استعمال کیا۔اس وقت امریکہ نے استعمال سے زیادہ مقدار میں ہیلیم گیس تیار کی۔ایک سوال یہ بھی ہے کہ غباروں میں ہاٸڈروجن گیس کی بجاۓ ہیلیم  گیس ہی کو کیوں ترجیح دی جاتی ہے حالانکہ ہاٸڈروجن گیس اس سے زیادہ ہلکی ہوتی ہے۔اس کی وجہ دراصل یہ ہے کہ ہیلیم گیس ہاٸیڈروجن کی طرح آتش گیر نہیں ہوتی یعنی اگر دو غبارے ہوں جن میں سے ایک میں ہاٸیڈروجن گیس بھری ہو اور دوسرے میں ہیلیم گیس بھری ہو اور اگر ان دونوں کوپھٹایا جاٸے تو ہاٸیڈروجن گیس پر مشتمل غبارہ آگ پکڑے گا جبکہ ہیلیم پر مشتمل غبارہ آگ نہیں پکڑے گا۔

اثرات#

مزے کی بات یہ ہے کہ اگر آپ ہیلیم گیس کو سانس کے ذریعے اندر لیجاٸیں تو آپ کی آواز تبدیل ہوجاۓ گی۔کیونکہ یہ انرٹ گیس ہوتی ہے اس لیے یہ ہمارے جسم کے لیے نقصان دہ نہیں ہے لیکن اگر بہت زیادہ مقدار میں ہیلیم سانس کے ذریعے اندر چلی جاۓ تو وہاں موجود آکسیجن کو ہٹاددیتی ہے اور چونکہ ہر ایک ٹشو کو آکسیجن کی ضرورت ہوتی ہے سو جس کی وجہ سے  آپ کے جسم پر  اس کے مضر اثرات ہوسکتے ہیں

تحریر: طاہرشاہ خلجی

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Is there life beyond the earth

 Is there life beyond the earth?

It is very difficult to answer this question, even the great scientists cannot make any claim despite deep research. However, many scientists say that there may be such creatures on other planets. The reason they think so is that they say that the substance from which living things are made is present in many places in the universe. Scientists have discovered that a germ-like creature called a microbe

Tahir Shah Khilji

Survives in Inat. That is why life may exist in another place. But according to another group of scientists, two basic things are very important for life, one is water and the other is air. And since this or that thing has never been discovered anywhere other than on Earth, life on this Earth is important.

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How big is the world?

 How big is the world?

The length of the world is different on two sides. If a straight ray is inserted from the center of the earth from the North Pole to the South Pole, its length will be 8400, but the circumference of the earth from one end to the other is about 25,000 miles.

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How is the planet divided into working hours?

 How is the planet divided into working hours?

The international measure of time is seconds. All over the world, time is born from this unit. Time measurement

This is done by moving the earth around its own orbit. The earth completes its orbit around its orbit and in front of the sun in one day, so when the sun is rising on one part of the planet, the sunset is on the other side. That is why time varies in different parts of the world. To find out the difference in time, the planet was divided into different time zones. It was very difficult to find the exact time in a single region before dividing the time zones. An international conference was held in Washington, D.C., in 1884 to address this problem. In this conference, with the advice of experts, the planet was divided into 24 different regions. The time difference between one canal area and another was fixed at one hour. Thus 24 areas were divided for 24 hours. However, the center of standard time was located at Ger Munich in London, the capital of the United Kingdom. There are many countries whose geography falls in the same region at the same time, but there are also a few countries whose geography falls in several regions at the same time, such as Russia, China and the United States.

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When did you find out that the world is round?

 When did you find out that the world is round?

For centuries man has believed that the world is flat. Man thought that if he walked in line with his nose, the end of the earth would come and he would fall. However, deep skepticism was expressed over the idea. In 1519, a Portuguese tourist and sailor, Ron Ferdinand Melanin, set sail on a voyage with five ships and 237 people on board. His destination was the African coast. During this voyage, one of his ships sank while the other broke down. Turning round from the African coast, he left for South America. He has had to make enormous sacrifices in this journey. Moving on from South America, he reached the Philippines, where his return journey began, and in 1522 he returned to Portugal. One of his companions, Aftolio, saw the story of this journey, which is called "The Story of the First Round the World". Thus, for the first time, this journey proved that the world is indeed round.

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Why are there spots on the moon?

 Why are there spots on the moon?

If you look at the moon, you can see big spots in it. These spots can also be seen with the naked eye. Ancient experts believed that there were large oceans on the moon. And these stains belong to the same oceans, but later the development of science proved that these stains actually belong to large plains. These fields are hundreds of miles wide. Many fields are also small. Now the question arises that these plains have been formed. In fact, the atmosphere of the moon is not like the earth. Due to the lack of space, large meteorites easily collide with the lunar surface without any resistance. Because of them, Mir became a pit. However, we did not form a few large plains due to the collision of the meteor Saqib, but when the piece of the moon separated from our earth, the pits were formed at that time.

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 What is a galaxy?

 If you look at the night sky, you can see clusters of stars fighting between countless stars. These are called galaxies. It could contain millions, even billions, of stars. Some galaxies are very large with more than billions of stars, while others are smaller with millions of stars. Even the smallest galaxy is so large that it takes millions of light years to get to any corner. These galaxies are, in fact, billions of years old There were clouds moving. During the process of rotation, their shape was formed and stars were formed. This process of rotation is still going on and new stars keep forming and old ones keep breaking all the time. It is so far away that its light reaches the earth 500,000 years later, that is, we can say that if we look at Andromeda, it is as if we are looking at Andromeda, which is 500,000 years old. The transmitting light went from there 500,000 years ago. Our galaxy is also part of a galaxy, and our galaxy is called the Milky Way. This galaxy is so large that it would take one million light-years to reach one end of it, meaning that a human being would travel in a spaceship that travels at the speed of light and at the speed of light exactly one million years. If he travels in alignment, then he will be able to reach the last part of the "national way" by going somewhere. Imagine if only our galaxy was so big then the rest of the galaxies and then the whole universe would be so big.

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What is a star?

What is a star?

 

One night when the sky is clear, there are stars in the sky with innumerable lights. Stars are actually a collection of hot gases, with millions of atomic bombs exploding in them all the time. We see that the Mistars are always fragrant because the gases in them collide with each other, releasing fire all the time, which makes the B-stars shine. The stars also appear to be twinkling, because the stars are so far away and so far away from our eyes that the light does not reach our eyes completely due to the cosmic dust in that distance. That's why they keep doing methamphetamine. If the sky is clear at night, we can see about 6,000 stars with the naked eye, even though there are about two billion stars in the universe. Our sun is also a small star where there are constant explosions of hydrogen gas bricks that release energy and light that reach the earth in the form of the sun, which is beneficial to us humans. There are always countless stars in the universe. There are countless galaxies in the universe. Each galaxy contains numerous hot gas clouds, called nebulae. The nebula continues to expand as it heats up, then reaches a point where it explodes and splits into smaller pieces, then gravity is created inside each piece, thus creating a star. That's it. All these stages take place over thousands of years.

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When was the universe created?

 When was the universe created?

Man of old believed that the universe has always been and always will be. Gradually, ideas about the universe changed. One idea is that the universe came into being fifteen billion years ago as a result of an explosion, while another idea is that the universe had no beginning and no end. According to one theory, the universe goes through two different states over and over again. That is, sometimes this sector does not start and then begins to spread, but it is completed in several billion years. According to this theory, we are living in an age of expansion of the universe. This period of expansion will continue for about three billion years. The most famous theory about the beginning of the universe is the "Big Bang". According to this theory, fifteen billion years ago today, an explosion occurred due to a very small amount of matter. The sudden eruption of this small amount created a rapidly expanding universe. Because of this explosion, the universe is still expanding. After this explosion, all the galaxies, stars, planets, system city, matter, energy, light and time were created in the universe. In the beginning the universe was very hot but gradually this heat decreased

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History of Europe

 History of Europe

history of European peoples and cultures from prehistoric times to the present. Europe is a most ambiguous term than most geographic expressions.

 Its etymology is doubtfull, as is the physical extent of the area it designates. Its western frontiers seem clear defined by its coastline, yet the position of the British Isles remains equivocal. To outsiders, they seem clearly some part of Europe. To many British and few Irish people, however, “Europe” means essentially continental Europe. To the south, Europe ends on the northern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Yet, to the Roman Empire, this was mare nostrum (“our sea”), an inland sea rather than a frontier. Even now, some question whether Malta or Cyprus, is a European island. The greatest uncertainty lies to the east, where natural frontiers are notoriously elusive. If the Ural Mountains mark the eastern boundary of Europe, where does it lie to the south of them? Can Astrakhan, for instance, be regarded as European? The questions have more than merely geographic significance.

These questions have acquired new importance as Europe has come to be more than a geographic expression. After World War II, much was heard of “the European idea.” Essentially, this meant the idea of European unity, at first confined to western Europe but by the beginning of the 1990s seeming able at length to embrace central and eastern Europe as well.

Unity in Europe is an ancient ideal. In a sense it was implicitly prefigured by the Roman Empire. In the Middle Ages, it was imperfectly embodied first by Charlemagne’s empire and then by the Holy Roman Empire and the Roman Catholic church. Later, a number of political theorists proposed plan for European union, and both Napoleon Bonaparte and Adolf Hitler tried to unite Europe by conquest.

It was not until after World War II, however, that European statesmen began to seek ways of uniting Europe peacefully on a basis of equality instead of domination by one or more great powers. Their motive was fourfold: to prevent further wars in Europe, in particular by reconciling France and Germany and helping to deter aggression by others; to eschew the protectionism and “beggar-my-neighbour” policies that had been practiced between the wars; to match the political and economic influence of the world’s new superpowers, but on a civilian basis; and to begin to civilize international relations by introducing common rules and institutions that would identify and promote the shared interests of Europe rather than the national interests of its constituent states.

Tahir Shah Khilji

 

 

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History of Asia

 

The history of Asia can be seen as the collective history of particular distinct peripheral coastal regions such as East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe. See History of the Middle East and Outline of South Asian history for fmore details.

The coastal periphery was the home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations and religions, with each of the three regions developing early civilizations around fertiles rivers valleys. These valleys were fertile because of the soil there was rich and could bear many root crops. The main civilizations in Mesopotamia, India, and china shared many similarities and they exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and wheel. Other countries . Like that of writing likely developed individually in every areas. Cities, states, and then empires developed in these lowlands.

The steppe region had long been inhabited by mounted nomads, and from the central steppes, they could reach all areas of the Asian continent. The northern part of the continent, covering much of Siberia was too inaccessible to the steppe nomads due to the dense forests and the tundra. These areas in Siberia were very sparsely populated.

The centre and periphery were kept separate by mountains and deserts. The Caucasus, Himalaya, Karakum Desert, and Gobi Desert formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could only cross with difficulty. While technologically and culturally the city dwellers were more advanced, they could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force. Thus the nomads who conquered states in the Middle East were soon forced to adapt to the local societies.

The spread of Islam waved the Islamic Golden Age and the Timurid Renaissance, which later influenced the age of Islamic gunpowder empires.

Asia's history features major developments seen in other parts of the world, as well as events that have affected those other regions. These include the trade of the Silk Road, which spread cultures, languages, religions, and diseases throughout Afro-Eurasian trade. Another major advancement was the innovation of gunpowder in medieval China, later developed by the Gunpowder empire, mainly by the Mughals and Safavids, which led to advanced warfare through the uses of guns.

 

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History of India

What is the history of India? 

The history of India starts with the existence of India itself as It located in the continent of Asia, India covers 2,973,193 square kilo meters of land and 314,070 square kilometers of water. 

Making it the 7th largest nation in the world with a total area of 3,287,263 square kilometers. Surrounded by Bhutan, Nepal, and Bangladesh to the North East, China to the North, Pakistan to the North West, and Sri Lanka on the South East coast. 

India is the land of ancient civilizations. India's social, economic, and cultural configurations are the products of a long procedure of regional expansion.  history of Indians begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization and the coming of the Aryans. These two phases are described as the pre-Vedic and Vedic age. Hinduism arose in the Vedic period too.

The fifth-century saw the unification of India under Ashoka, who had converted to Buddhism, and it is in his reign that Buddhism spread in many parts of Asia. In the eighth century, Islam came to India for the first time and by the eleventh century had firmly established itself in India as a political force. It resulted in the formation of the Delhi Sultanate, that was finally succeeded by the Mughal Empire, under that India once again achieved a large measure of political unity.

It was in the 17th century that the Europeans copany came to India. This coincided with the disintegration of the Mughal Empires, paving the way for regional states of india. In the contest for supremacy, the English people emerged 'victors'. The Rebellion of 1857-58,,, which sought to restore Indian supremacy, was crushed; and with the subsequent crowning of Victoria as Empress of India, the incorporation of India into the empire was complete. It was followed by India's struggle for independence, which we got in the year 1947. Here is a brief timeline about the history of India:

Ancient India History

The History of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization and the coming of the Aryans. These two phases are generally described as the pre-Vedic and Vedic periods. The earliest literary source that sheds light on India's past is the Rig Veda. It is difficult to date this work with any accuracy on the basis of tradition and ambiguous astronomical information contained in the hymns. Indus valley civilization, which flourished between 2800 BC and 1800 BC, had an advanced and flourishing economic system. The Indus valley people practiced agriculture, domesticated animals, made tools and weapons from copper, bronze, and tin and even traded with some Middle East countries.

'The Indus Valley Civilization,,,,,,,

A longest time ago, in the  eastern world, there rose a few civilizations. The main reasons for the rise of these urban civilizations were access to rivers, which served various functions of human beings. Along with the Mesopotamian civilization and the Egyptian civilization, rose the Indus Valley civilization spanning Northwest India and modern-day Pakistan. The largest amongst the three civilizations, the Indus Valley civilization flourished around 2600 BC, at which time agriculture in India started flourishing. The fertile Indus valley made it possible for agriculture to be carried out on a large scale. The most well-known towns of the Indus Valley in today’s date are Mohenjo Daro and Harappa. Unearthing these two towns showed excavators glimpses into the richness of the Indus Valley civilization, evidenced in ruins and things like household articles, war weapons, gold and silver ornament - and so on. The people of the Indus Valley civilization lived in well-planned towns and well-designed houses made of baked bricks. In an era of developments and prosperity, civilization, unfortunately, came to an end by around 1300 BC, mainly due to natural calamities. 

 Vedic Civilization

The next era that India saw was that of the Vedic civilization, flourishing along the river Saraswati, named after the Vedas, which depict the early literature of the Hindus. The two greatest epics of this period were the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, still held in great reverence by the followers of Hinduism.  

Buddhist Era

Next came the Buddhist era, during the time of the Mahajanapadas which were the sixteen great powers, during the 7th and the 6th centuries BC. Prominent powers at the time were the Sakyas of Kapilavastu and the Licchavis of Vaishali. Buddha, whose original name was Siddhartha Gautam, was born in Lumbini near Kapilavastu and was the founder of Buddhism - a religion based on spiritualism. He died at the age of 80 in 480 BC but his teachings spread throughout southern and eastern Asia and are followed across the world today. 

The Invasion of Alexander

When Alexander invaded India in 326 BC, he crossed the Indus river and defeated the Indian rulers in battle. Noteworthy of the Indians’ attempts at war, was the use of elephants, something that the Macedonians had never seen before. Alexander then took over the lands of the defeated kings.

The Gupta Dynasty

The Gupta period has been referred to as the Golden Age of Indian history. When Chandragupt I received the gift of Pataliputra in dowry when he married the daughter of the chief of the ‘Licchavis’, he started to lay down the foundation of his empire, which extended from the river Ganges or the Ganga to the city of Allahabad. He ruled for 15 years and was also referred to as the ‘king of kings’ for his strategic conquests and the flourishing state of India. 

Harshavardhana

 The last of the ancient kingdoms in India was by the king Harshavardhana, who ascended the throne at Thanneshwar and Kannauj after his brother died. While successful in a few of his conquests, he eventually got defeated by the Chalukya Kingdom of Deccan India. Harshavardhana was well-known for establishing relations with the Chinese, and also for having high religious tolerance and strong administrative capabilities. 

Medieval Indian History

The medieval history of India is renowned for deriving a lot of its character from Islamic kingdoms. Extending across almost three generations, medieval India included a number of kingdoms and dynasties: 

-    The Chalukyas

-    The Pallavas

-    The Pandyas

-    The Rashtrakutas

-    The Cholas

The Cholas were the most important rulers at this time, the 9th Century AD. Their kingdom covered a large part of South India, including Sri Lanka and the Maldives. While the rulers ruled bravely and carried out the annexation of multiple territories in India, the empire came to an end in the 14th Century AD with an invasion by a man named Kafur Malik. The monuments from the Chola Dynasty are still intact and are known for their rustic charm. 

The next major empire was that of the Mughals, preceded by a rise in Islamic rulers. The invasion of Timur was a significant point in Indian history before a Hindu revival movement called the Bhakti movement, came to be. Finally, in the 16th Century, the Mughal empire started to rise. One of the greatest empires of India, the Mughal empire was a rich and glorious one, with the whole of India united and ruled by one monarch. The Mughal Kings were Babar, Humayun, Sher Shah Suri (not a Mughal king), Akbar, Jehangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. They were responsible for setting up efficient public administration, laying out infrastructure, and promoting the arts. A large number of monuments in India today exist from the Mughal period. The death of the last Mughal King, Aurangzeb, sowed the seeds of disintegration within India. Influencers of Islamic architecture in India, the Mughal kings are still looked back in awe. 

Akbar

Emperor Akbar, also known as Akbar the Great or Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar, was the third emperor of the Mughal Empire, after Babur and Humayun. He was the son of Nasiruddin Humayun and succeeded him as the emperor in the year 1556 when he was only 13 years old.

Shah Jahan

Shah Jahan, also known as Shahbuddin Mohammed Shah Jahan, was a Mughal Emperor who ruled in the Indian Subcontinent from 1628 to 1658. He was the fifth Mughal ruler, after Babur, Humayun, Akbar, and Jahangir. Shah Jahan succeeded the throne after revolting against his father, Jahangir.

Chhatrapati Shivaji

Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was the founder of the Maratha Empire in western India. He is considered to be one of the greatest warriors of his time and even today, stories of his exploits are narrated as a part of the folklore. King Shivaji used the guerrilla tactics to capture a part of, the then, dominant Mughal empire.

Modern Indian History

During the late 16th and the 17th Centuries, the European trading companies in India competed with each other ferociously. By the last quarter of the 18th Century, the English had outdone all others and established themselves as the dominant power in India. The British administered India for a period of about two centuries and brought about revolutionary changes in the social, political and economic life of the country.

However, the zenith of colonisation was achieved when the British arrived in the early 1600s as traders. Capitalizing on the disintegration that existed in India after the Mughal rule, the British actively used the strategy of ‘divide-and-rule’ to rule over India for over 2 centuries. While the British had come in earlier, they only achieved political power in 1757 AD after the Battle of Plassey. 

They took a keen interest in the resources that India had to offered and have been looked back at as plunderers of India’s wealth of resources - as they took cotton, spices, silk, and tea, amongst numerous other resources. While they did lay out a massive chunk of India’s infrastructure, by also bringing the Indians steam engines, it is seldom looked back at as an equal relationship. The British Raj was divisive and pit Indians against one another, on the basis of religion; and also mistreated the laborers. The Indians were essentially slaves of the British rule and were working hard without any returns on their work. This, naturally, led to multiple mutinies; and prominent freedom fighters came to the forefront. Different ideologies of thought believed that there were different ways of gaining freedom; however, they all had one common goal - freedom. 

The British queen had asserted that the aim of the British was to help India progress - however, multiple problems arose without the consultation of Indian leaders. One important instance of this was when in the First World War, Britain launched an attack on Germany on behalf of India, even though India did not wish for that to happen; and millions of Indian soldiers were at the forefront of the British Indian Army during both the world wars - further fueling the Indian resistance. Over a million Indian soldiers were killed in both the World Wars

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Erik Erikson’s Theory of Child Development

 Erik Erikson’s theory is a psychosocial theory. Most people who know his work talk about his stages of  human development from birth to old age. Erikson thought that people experience a series of  life stages. Each has 1) a crisis and 2) a task. The crisis stimulates growth. How a person resolves the crisis will affect their overall social, psychological, emotional, and cognitive development. If  the crisis is not resolved, it will be an issue for years to come. So it is important to resolve the crisis in a healthy way.

Trust vs. mistrust (0–1 year-old)

 Erikson thought that if  infants are treated in a loving way and their needs are met, they learn to trust. If  not, they become mistrusting. This is true even when they are very young. Parents or caregivers should encourage the growing child to try things. When the child fails, he or she needs reassurance and love. This helps the child develop a healthy sense of  autonomy. But some children are always being told ‘no’ and treated as if  they can’t do anything for themselves. Such children begin to feel shame and self-doubt.

Autonomy vs. shame/doubt (2–4 years old) 

When they reach preschool age, children need encouragement to start and finish tasks. They need to learn how to cooperate and to make good choices. If  this does not happen, they feel guilty because they always seem to fail. Their imagination and independence do not flourish.

Learning initiative vs. guilt (4–5 years old) 

By school age, children are forming friendships and following rules. They want to work hard, be responsible, and ‘be good’. When parents or teachers do not encourage them, recognize their accomplishments, and support their efforts, they can develop feelings of  being inferior. 

Industry vs. inferiority (5–12 years old)

 Adolescents are exploring who they are as unique persons. They want to know what their place is in the world. They depend on their peers. They need parents and teachers to be patient with their need to know ‘Who am I?’ and to provide teens with boundaries and freedom.

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